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Discourse markers are words and phrases that are used to manage and organize the structure of discourse. They connect sentences without changing the general meaning of what is being said. Discourse markers are also known as linking words, linking phrases or sentence connectors.
Discourse markers are words and phrases such as '' well '', '' I mean '', '' because '' and '' however ''.
The term 'discourse markers' was first introduced in 1988 by the American linguist Deborah Schiffrin.
Discourse markers are helpful tools in making speech and writing both logical and coherent. Without discourse markers, the connections between sentences and paragraphs wouldn't be as smooth or clear.
Let's take a look at some examples with and without the use of discourse markers to see what effect they have:
With discourse markers:
Without discourse markers:
Note how the use of the discourse markers ('' because '', '' but '' and '' so '') help the phrases to flow a lot smoother. Without discourse markers, the messages that are being sent might be vague and they might not even be understood.
Fig. 1 - Discourse markers help a conversation flow.
Discourse markers are split into four broad categories - interpersonal discourse markers, referential discourse markers, structural discourse markers and cognitive discourse markers. These categories were created by Israeli linguist Yael Maschler.
Now, let's take a closer look at each category of discourse markers.
The purpose of interpersonal discourse markers is to indicate the relationship between the listener and the speaker.
There are a number of attitudes that show this relationship:
Interpersonal discourse markers that show perception include words and phrases such as 'look ', 'believe me' and 'you know'.
EVELYN: It was such a horrible experience.
AMIR: Believe me, I get it. It was horrible for me too.
EVELYN: Look , I know it seems like a lot now, for both of us. But we'll be fine. It's going to be alright, you know .
AMIR: Yeah. I know.
'Believe me', 'look' and 'you know' are interpersonal discourse markers that are used to express the perception of the participants in the conversation. They establish the relationship between Evelyn and Amir who exchange their turns as listener and speaker back and forth.
Agreement can be expressed through the use of interpersonal discourse markers such as 'exactly', 'absolutely', 'certainly', 'definitely', 'okay' ', and 'I see'. Disagreement can be voiced with interpersonal discourse markers such as 'I'm not sure', 'mind you', 'I don't think so', 'I beg to differ' and 'not necessarily'.
Agreement :
AMIR: I think this is a very ugly vase.
EVELYN: Absolutely ! It's hideous.
Disagreement :
AMIR: I think this is a very ugly vase.
EVELYN: I don't think so . It looks fine to me.
Note how, depending on the different discourse markers that are used, Evelyn can express either agreement or disagreement with Amir's statement.
Amazement can be expressed through the use of a number of different interpersonal discourse markers, such as 'wow', 'wonderful' and 'yay'.
EVELYN: Look at my new dress!
MAYA: Wow! It's gorgeous!
The interpersonal discourse marker 'wow' enhances Maya's expression of amazement.
Referential discourse markers are usually conjunctions. They are used to indicate the sequence, causality (the cause and effect) and coordination between sentences.
Referential discourse markers that indicate sequence are words and phrases such as 'now' and 'then'.
MAYA: Now I'm fine. But you should've been there! He shouted at me ..
AMIR: And then what happened?
MAYA: Then I started crying.
Here, the referential discourse markers are used to organise Maya's story in sequences.
The cause and effect of an action, also known as causality, can be shown through the referential discourse markers 'because', 'as a result of', 'thanks to' and 'due to'.
EVELYN: I was late because my alarm didn't go off. Why were you late?
AMIR: Thanks to my brother who was in the bathroom, I had to wait for half an hour before I could brush my teeth!
Evelyn and Amir use the referential discourse markers 'because' and 'thanks to' to state the reasons for being late.
Referential discourse markers that express coordination and non-coordination, are used to connect sentences that are complete thoughts that don't depend on each other to make sense separately. To indicate coordination, you can use referential discourse markers such as 'and' and 'so'. As for non-coordination, you can use the referential discourse marker 'but'.
Take a look at these examples:
Coordination :
My shift ended and I went home.
The same effect can be achieved through the use of the discourse marker 'so':
Coordination :
My shift ended so I went home.
Non-coordination :
My shift hadn't ended but I went home.
Depending on the different discourse markers that are used, the message can be either one of coordination ('and', 'so') or non-coordination ('but').
The role of structural discourse markers is to indicate the hierarchy of the actions in a conversation at the exact time they are being performed. This category of discourse markers expresses the value the speaker adds to the statements that are uttered in a conversation, highlighting which statements are the least and the most important to them.
Structural discourse markers that are used to show organization include phrases such as 'first of all', 'secondly', 'for a start', 'next' and 'last of all'.
EVELYN: First of all, you don't know me.
AMIR: Okay, and what's second of all?
EVELYN: Secondly, you have no right to judge me.
AMIR: I didn't mean to ...
EVELYN: And last of all, no one can tell me how to live my life.
In this conversation, Evelyn uses structural discourse markers to lay out her point and, in this way, to make a statement.
Introduction can be expressed through the use of the structural discourse markers 'so', 'to begin with', 'to start with', 'for a start'.
MAYA: So we'll start the presentation by welcoming all of you here today.
EVELYN: Yes, thank you all for coming. To begin with, let's introduce ourselves!
Maya and Evelyn both use structural discourse markers to indicate the beginning of their presentation. As a structural discourse marker, 'so' has a different function than as a referential discourse marker. While as a referential discourse marker, 'so' is used to express coordination and to connect equal statements, as a structural discourse marker, the function of 'so' is to indicate the beginning of a statement.
Summarisation is the opposite of introduction - it expresses the ending of a statement. Some structural discourse markers that are used for summarization are: 'in the end', 'to sum up', 'to conclude', and 'in conclusion'.
EVELYN: To sum up, with this whole presentation, all we really want to say to you is that the most important thing in life is to be kind to others.
MAYA: In the end, that's all that really matters, isn't it?
Here, Evelyn and Maya use structural discourse markers to conclude their presentation and summarize their message.
Cognitive discourse markers are used to reveal the thought process of the speaker(s) during a conversation.
A speaker can express how they are processing the information that is exchanged during a conversation, through the use of cognitive discourse markers such as 'uhh', 'um ' and 'erm'.
AMIR: So what do you think?
MAYA: Um... I'm not sure. Let me think.
Amir asks Maya a question and her thought process is revealed through the use of the cognitive discourse marker 'um'.
Realization can be indicated through the use of cognitive discourse markers such as 'oh!', 'Really?' And 'oh no! '.
EVELYN: We're going to be late for class!
MAYA: Oh no! Let's hurry!
Maya's immediate reaction upon realizing the information she has been given is expressed through the cognitive discourse marker 'oh no!'.
Some of the cognitive discourse markers you can use are those used to rephrase something you have already said. They include 'I mean' and 'in other words'.
I like pizza. I mean, I don't mind having it once in a while.
So that the speaker isn't misunderstood, they rephrase the statement with the cognitive discourse marker 'I mean'. This means they don't want pizza all the time, only 'once in a while'.
Discourse markers can be used for different formal and informal purposes, both in discourse and in spoken conversation. Formal discourse markers are used in formal discourse while informal discourse markers are used in informal discourse .
In written discourse, formal discourse markers occur in academic essays, official work-related documents, formal letters and emails. Informal discourse markers occur in more informal forms of communication, like emails, texts and DMs between friends. Formal discourse markers appear in formal communication, like diplomatic or business negotiations. Informal discourse markers are used in casual conversations between friends and small talk between acquaintances.
Some examples of formal and informal discourse markers are:
Structural discourse markers stating organization (to introduce additional information):
Referential discourse markers stating non-coordination (to state something that is despite what has already been said or written):
Referential discourse markers stating causality (to explain something that is the result of something else):
Let's take a look at this example that shows the difference between formal and informal discourse markers:
Formal: I was exhausted. Nevertheless, I continued working.
Informal: I was exhausted but I kept on working.
Discourse markers are words and phrases that are used to manage and organize the structure of discourse. Discourse markers are also known as linking words, linking phrases or sentence connectors.
'' I mean '', '' because '' and '' however '' are examples of discourse markers.
You use discourse markers to connect sentences without changing the general meaning of what is being said. Discourse markers are helpful tools in making speech, and writing, logical and coherent. Without discourse markers, the connections between sentences and paragraphs wouldn't run as smoothly and could sometimes be unclear.
Interpersonal discourse markers, Referential discourse markers, Structural discourse markers, and Cognitive discourse markers.
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