The end of the Second World War threw Britain into the race for nuclear weapons. From the first systems developed in the early 1950s to the current Trident missile system, the history of the UK's Nuclear Deterrent brimmed with political and social controversy.

What's the history of the UK's nuclear deterrent? What role did it play during the Cold War? What opposition has the nuclear program faced? Read on to find out.

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UK nuclear deterrent history

Here is a timeline of the important events in the UK's nuclear deterrent history.

UK missile systems

The UK has had two nuclear missile systems in the history of its nuclear deterrent – Polaris and Trident.

Polaris

In December 1962, Prime Minister Harold MacMillan negotiated with US President John F Kennedy for Britain to have the US-made, submarine-launched Polaris missiles. After some reluctance, Kennedy agreed, and in 1968 the Polaris Nuclear System came into service in the UK.

The Polaris nuclear deterrent submarines

The introduction of the Polaris system transferred responsibility for the UK's nuclear program from the Royal Air Force (RAF) to the Royal Navy.

• The Polaris System consisted of four Resolution-Class Submarines:
  • HMS Resolution
  • HMS Revenge
  • HMS Repulse
  • HMS Renown
• These submarines had been built in the UK. The only American part of the program was the missiles – everything else was designed and built in the UK.
• Each submarine was armed with 16 Polaris missiles. Each missile was capable of carrying three thermonuclear warheads.

Chevaline

In the 1970s, there were concerns that the Polaris missiles could not penetrate the Soviet Union's new anti-ballistic missile system (ABM). Therefore, the UK decided to upgrade the Polaris warheads through a programme called Chevaline.

It was an entirely British programme, receiving no outside help. Four successive governments kept it a secret. The program was a success, though it was met with controversy when it was finally revealed in 1980.

Trident

In 1980, the government announced their plans to replace the Polaris system, which was out of date, with the Trident C4 Missile System. In 1982, however, they changed their minds and instead chose the Trident D5 system as it had increased capability and was more cost-efficient. In 1996, the Polaris system was completely phased out, and Trident took over.

The Trident nuclear deterrent submarines

• Like the Polaris system, the Trident system consists of four submarines. The Trident submarines are Vanguard-class and are named:
  • HMS Vanguard
  • HMS Vengeance
  • HMS Victorious
  • HMS Vigilant
• Each submarine carries no more than 40 thermonuclear warheads, split between eight missiles.
• According to the Royal Navy, the Trident system operates as a Continuous At Sea Deterrent (CASD), i.e., there is always at least one submarine on patrol at all times.

Fig. 1 - HMS Victorious

The UK nuclear deterrent and the Cold War

It would be impossible to explain the UK's nuclear deterrent without addressing the UK's role during the Cold War.

Tensions between the Soviet Union (USSR) and the USA began to intensify after World War Two, not least as the US had used nuclear bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki to end the war in Japan in 1945. The US monopoly of nuclear weapons lasted for only four years, as in 1949, the Soviet Union successfully tested their atomic bomb, starting the arms race.

The UK felt the threat of nuclear war as much as any other country. The UK was a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) in 1949 and was committed to defending its allies if the USSR attacked them – potentially by using nuclear weapons if necessary.

UK–US relations

The relationship between the US and the UK surrounding nuclear weapons was fairly stable. The two countries collaborated during the Manhattan Project. Although the UK did not have its nuclear capability in 1945, it had a relationship with the only power that did. When the UK became the third nuclear power in 1952, this was seen as keeping the country relevant on the international stage, given that they had recently dismantled most of the British Empire.

Tensions did emerge a couple of times throughout nuclear development; the Atomic Energy Act in 1946 effectively meant that the US stopped collaborating on nuclear technology with the UK, which was not well-received. Similarly, the sudden cancellation of the American Skybolt Program caused tension as it left the UK with a very outdated nuclear system based on V-bombers with no replacement system in development.

Despite these occasional breakdowns in the relationship, overall, the US and the UK remained good allies and close partners in developing nuclear technology. According to American and British declassified documents, both countries saw each other as their most important ally in nuclear development.

The Limited Test Ban Treaty 1963

In August 1963, the UK signed the Limited Test Ban Treaty, along with the US and USSR.

Amid rising concern and public anxiety about the effects of radiation from nuclear tests, it was decided that there needed to be limits placed on where nuclear tests could be conducted.

The treaty banned nuclear weapons testing underwater, in the atmosphere, and outer space.

It was not an easy process – the negotiations took about eight years and suffered from many interruptions, notably in 1960 when the U2 incident occurred. The USSR had concerns over how adherence to the treaty would be verified – they worried the methods would be too invasive or that the US would hijack them to spy on the Soviet military.

When it was eventually signed, the outcome was significant. It was the first piece of disarmament legislation approved during the Cold War and was a small step towards the de-escalation of hostilities between the US and the USSR.

Opposition to the UK nuclear deterrent

This section will discuss the opposition to the UK's nuclear deterrent from within the UK itself.

Much of the opposition came and still comes from public organisations and campaigns. Dome of the significant anti-nuclear groups in the UK include:

• Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament

• Bertrand Russell Peace Foundation

• Trident Ploughshares

• Greenpeace

• Direct Action Committee

• Nuclear Information Service

Cost of the UK nuclear deterrent

A significant argument against developing a nuclear weapons program has always been the cost.

A common argument has been that the money spent on a nuclear deterrent could be better used in improving public services, healthcare, and all-around quality of life.

Political opposition

Throughout the development of the UK's nuclear deterrent, there was political opposition to certain aspects of it.

In the mid-1960s, just after purchasing the Polaris system, the Conservative government was facing heavy attacks from the Labour Party. They criticised the government for the amount of money they were spending on the Polaris system, especially after a plan had been outlined to construct a fifth Polaris submarine.

In addition, the government was accused of narrow-mindedness; the opposition was concerned that such a focus on nuclear deterrent meant Britain's military commitments elsewhere in the world were being forgotten.

A particular cause of controversy was the development of the Chevaline modification for the Polaris system.

This enormous public expenditure caused outrage, especially since Britain was going through severe economic austerity when it was being developed. Chevaline also led to calls from the Labour Party to support disarmament and do away with the nuclear weapons system.

Public anxiety

Since the earliest days of the development of nuclear weapons, there had been much worry from the British public about how nuclear weapons might impact them.

Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND)

One of the most prominent anti-nuclear groups in the UK is the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. It was founded in February 1958 in London.

Their marches in Aldermaston, Berkshire, for which they are well known, took place in the 1950s and 1960s. Their march from Aldermaston to London in 1959 attracted a huge following. Around 20,000 people were at the final rally in Trafalgar Square.

The next year, in 1960, their march gained a following of 40,000, with around 100,000 joining the final rally in Trafalgar Square.

The public was considerably aware of UK's nuclear deterrent and concerned over the impact of the development of nuclear weapons on ordinary people's lives.

Fig. 2 - CND protesters in Paisley, Scotland, in 2016

Cross-society support

Many different areas of society supported the anti-nuclear movement. It was not solely a phenomenon of the working classes; many church and scientific community members also supported it.

Many in the scientific community opposed the nuclear program because they were well aware of its dangers to society. In 1950, well-respected physicist Patrick Blackett published a response to the government's advice for civil defence in the case of a nuclear strike, stating that Britain could not be adequately defended in the case of a nuclear attack.

John Collins, an Anglican priest, was instrumental in founding the CND. In the aftermath of the Second World War, he had waited for the UK to condemn the development of nuclear weapons by the US and USSR. When it was announced the UK would develop its nuclear weapons, he decided to help found the CND, becoming frustrated at the lack of condemnation of the nuclear program.

Historiography of the UK nuclear deterrent

The UK Atomic Energy Authority commissioned an official history of Britain's nuclear programme. The task was given to Margaret Gowing, an English historian. She had access to files that were not available to the rest of the academic community, and her work set the foundation for the study of Britain's nuclear program. Thanks to this, a lot of work in this field has focused on reviewing the nuclear policy and political aspects of the UK's nuclear deterrent.

However, in more recent years, there has been an attempt to shift the focus to make it broader, incorporating a wider variety of angles and voices. For example, the impact of nuclear development on popular culture (music, art, literature) has been of increasing interest. The history of the social, psychological, and philosophical impacts of the UK's nuclear deterrent has also expanded.

Although many historical debates concerning the UK nuclear deterrent exist, historians nearly unanimously agree that the development of the UK nuclear deterrent has had a deep and long-lasting impact on the structure of society and politics during the latter half of the 20th century.