After Genghis Khan died in 1227, the Mongolian empire split into smaller Khanates or hordes. Not only did Genghis Khan's sons and grandsons inherit these territories and people, but they also inherited their father's insatiable lust for conquest.
In the western reaches of the Mongolian Empire, the Khanate descending from Jochi waged wars and established its state in Central Asia and Eastern Europe. For the 200 years following the death of Genghis Khan, the Golden Horde dominated Bulgaria, Hungary, and much of modern-day Russia.
Location of the Golden Horde
The map below represents the different regions of the split Mongolian Empire during the 15th century. The territories belonging to the Golden Horde are on the northwest of the map.
Fig. 1- Map of the Mongolian Empire After Splitting.
The Golden Horde covered much of Central Asia and Eastern Europe, stretching from today's Ukraine and Russia to Kazakhstan and Instanbul at the height of its power. Sarai, the capital of the Golden Horde, can be found just above the Caspian Sea (the body of water in the top half of the 'Timurids' territory.
The Golden Horde History
Genghis Khan made provisions to divide the territories of his kingdom among his children should he die. Jochi Khan, the eldest of the Great Khan's sons, died shortly before his father. Genghis Khan met his end in 1227 due to an accidental fall from his horse, and Jochi's sons Batu Khan and Orda inherited the western territories that had been promised to their father.
The Golden Horde had many different rulers, and it may seem overwhelming. Later in this article, you'll find a chart that lists all of the prominent Golden Horde Khans for easy reference.
The Rise of the Golden Horde
Batu Khan did not rest upon his inheritance. After absorbing his brother Orda's territory, Batu Khan pressed into the Volga region, Bulgaria, and Kyivan Rus'. Following his grandfather's footsteps, Batu Khan led an unstoppable campaign, conquering Bulgaria in 1237 and the Kyivan Rus' cities of Suzdal and Kyiv by 1240.
Fig. 2- Batu Khan invades Kyiv Rus'.
The combined Polish and Hungarian armies, bolstered by Teutonic Knights (military order of the Catholic Church), could not stop Batu Khan's advance. When he began his march upon Vienna, the Khan only turned back because a war for succession had begun in Mongolia due to the death of his uncle, Ogedei Khan. Later, Batu Khan established a capital at Sarai and implemented a tribute system for the Rus' princes.
Batu's brother Berke inherited the Golden Horde in 1257 and continued successful campaigns in Eastern Europe. Notably, Berke Khan officially converted to Islam, foreshadowing the future importance of the religion in the Golden Horde.
Fig. 3- Golden Horde at Kulikovo.
As the passage of leadership exchanged hands from Berke to Mengu-Timir, then to Nogai Khan, the Golden Horde began to focus more on internalizing its kingdom, enhancing its infrastructure, and ingratiating itself in the lands it conquered. Local governors were assigned to regions; the capital city of Sarai surged in population; the Mongols even established an official state religion under Uzbeg Khan: Islam. The Golden Horde did what no one thought the Mongols could do: they settled.
The True Ruler: Nogai Khan
In the latter half of the 13th century, the Khans of the Golden Horde were accompanied by a powerful advisor and military commander: Nogai Khan, the great-grandson of Genghis Khan. Nogai Khan was unofficially considered a co-ruler of the Golden Horde (and sometimes the 'true ruler' by foreign powers), directing conquests alongside the likes of Berke and Mengu-Timir. He led military campaigns against Poland, Byzantium, Bulgaria, and Hungary, though he never sought complete power over the Golden Horde for himself.
The Fall of the Golden Horde
Troubles began in the second half of the 14th century. The Black Death was ravaging Europe and Asia, spreading with particular ease through the tight trade routes that the Golden Horde had created. Civil War and infighting split the Golden Horde. Eastern Europeans rebelled and won. Rus' Princes, drawing their strength from Moscow, resisted the Golden Horde's dominion. Attacks by Tamerlane, a powerful Asiatic warlord, devastated Sarai and its connecting trade routes.
The Black Death:
An infamous 14th-century plague devastated Eurasia, killing hundreds of millions of people.
The Golden Horde split into multiple Khanates, losing its unified political and cultural identity. These successor Khanates were shadows of the Golden Horde's forgotten rule. Some raids continued, but the dream of conquering all of Europe was lost. The Khanates gradually disappeared, dissolving into other rising nations, the last surviving until 1783 when it was annexed by Russian ruler Catherine the Great.
Rulers of the Golden Horde
The Golden Horde reigned in Rus' and Eastern Europe for two centuries, exercising its power under many different rulers. Yet as the Golden Horde gradually lost influence, so did its Khans. The chart below details some of the prominent Khans in the Golden Horde's history, almost from the horde's first century of power.
Prominent leaders of the Golden Horde | |
|---|
Name and Time Period of Reign | Significance |
Jochi Khan (n/a) | Son of Genghis Khan and planned inheritor of the western territories, Jochi never lived to rule the land he was promised. His sons ruled in his stead. |
Batu Khan (1227-1255 CE) | The first leader of the Golden Horde. He led a conquering force as far as Vienna, only retreating upon word of succession wars in his homeland. Established Golden Horde capital in Sarai. |
Berke Khan (1257-1266 CE) | Personally converted to Islam. He conquered parts of Poland and Lithuania. |
Mengu-Timir Khan (1266-1280 CE) | Allowed trade routes to flourish through the Golden Horde, connecting Rus, Germany, and Italy. |
Nogai Khan (1250s-1290s CE) | Golden Horde general and longtime political advisor who served Mengu-Timir and Berke Khan, among others. |
Uzbeg Khan (1313-1341 CE) | He established Islam as the official religion of his state. His army was over 300,00 men strong. |
Members of the Golden Horde
The Golden Horde subjugated many states in Eastern Europe and Rus' to its mighty reign. Official members of the Golden Horde were the many Mongolian warlords gathered under its banner, but the Golden Horde acquired many vassal states through conquest. The Rus' Princes, Armenians, Crimeans, and Georgians all paid tribute to the Khan of the Golden Horde. Historians speculate that the Rus' Princes and Golden Horde often interacted like a defensive alliance, poised against possible invasion by Lithuania and armies of the Catholic Church.
Meaning of the Golden Horde
The Mongolians of the Golden Horde did not refer to themselves as the 'Golden Horde', but rather as the Ulus of Jochi. Before the seventeenth century, this Rus-based Mongolian sect was never referred to as the Golden Horde. So, why do we now call them the Golden Horde?
One possibility is from the Asian steppe system for cardinal directions. Various colors were attributed to the different directions: black for the north-facing, red for the south, and yellow or gold for the center. (The Golden Horde dominated central Eurasia.) Another possibility comes from rumors. The attribution of gold may have come from the splendorous golden color of Batu Khan's war tent. In any case, the term 'Golden Horde' was given to the Ulus of Jochi by scholars in hindsight.
The Golden Horde - Key takeaways
- The Golden Horde developed from the western territories of Genghis Khan's vast empire. Batu Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, was its first leader.
- The Golden Horde invaded territories in Central Asia and Eastern Europe, achieving great military success reminiscent of Genghis Khan's conquests.
- In the 14th century, the Golden Horde shifted from constant invasions to settling. The Golden Horde's capital at Sarai flourished, and the Mongolians worked to tighten their reign on territories they already controlled.
- The Black Death, civil wars, and successful resistance from vassal states devastated the Golden Horde, splitting the horde into many smaller Khanates. Some of these Khanates survived for many years, but none came close to the past glory of the Golden Horde.
- Scholars began to use the term 'Golden Horde' in the seventeenth century. The Mongolians of the Golden Horde likely referred to their organization as the Ulus of Jochi.
References
- Fig. 1 Map of the Mongol Empire After Splitting (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Northern_Yuan_and_Golden_Horde.svg) by Elvonudinium (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User:Elvonudinium), licensed by CC-BY-SA-4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en).
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