Catherine de' Medici was born during the Reformation and grew up through the Renaissance. Throughout her 69 years, she saw immense political turmoil, vast amounts of power, and was blamed for thousands of deaths.
How did she become one of the most influential personalities of 16th-century Europe? Let's find out!
Catherine de Medici Early Life
Catherine de' Medici was born on 13 April 1519 in Florence, Italy. Once she was of age, Catherine de' Medici's uncle, Pope Clement VII, arranged for her to marry in 1533. She was promised to Prince Henry, Duke d'Orleans, the son of King of France, Francis I.
Fig. 1 Catherine de' Medici.
Marriage and Children
At the time, royal marriages were not about love but strategy. Through marriage, two large, powerful families would become allies for political advancement and an increase in their power.
Fig. 2 Henry, Duke d'Orleans.
Henry, Duke d'Orleans had a mistress, Diane de Poitiers. Despite this, Henry and Catherine's marriage was deemed strategically successful as Catherine bore ten children. Although only four boys and three girls survived infancy, three of their children became French monarchs.
Catherine de Medici Timeline
Catherine de Medici lived through many critical political events, often playing an active role in her position of influence and power.
| Date | Event |
| 1 January 1515 | King Louis XII died, and Francis I was crowned. |
| 1519 | Birth of Catherine de' Medici. |
| 1533 | Catherine de' Medici married Henry, Duke d'Orleans. |
| 31 July 1547 | King Francis I died, and Henry, Duke d'Orleans, became King Henry II. Catherine de' Medici became Queen consort. |
| July 1559 | King Henry II died and Catherine de' Medici's son, Francis, became King Francis II. Catherine de' Medici became Queen regent. |
| March 1560 | Protestant Conspiracy of Amboise to kidnap King Francis II failed. |
| 5 December 1560 | King Francis II died. Catherine de' Medici's second son, Charles, became King Charles IX. Catherine remained Queen regent. |
| 1562 | January - Edict of Saint Germain. |
| March - Massacre of Vassy started the First French War of Religion between Western and Southwestern France. |
| March 1563 | Edict of Amboise ended the First French War of Religion. |
| 1567 | The Surprise of Meaux, a failed Huguenot coup against King Charles IX, started the Second French War of Religion. |
| 1568 | March - Peace of Longjumeau ended the Second French War of Religion. |
| September - Charles IX issued the Edict of Saint Maur, which started the Third French War of Religion. |
| 1570 | August - Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye ended the Third French War of Religion. paix de Saint-Germain-en-Laye et fin de la troisième guerre de Religion.November - After years of talks, Catherine de' Medici arranged for her son King Charles IX to marry Elizabeth of Austria to strengthen the peace and relations between the French crown and Spain. |
| 1572 | St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. Hostilities continued with the French Wars of Religion. |
| 1574 | King Charles IX died, and Catherine's third son was crowned King Henry III. |
| 1587 | War of the Three Henrys began as part of the French Wars of Religion. |
| 1589 | January - Catherine de' Medici died.August - King Henry III was assassinated. He declared his cousin, Henry of Bourbon, King of Navarre as heir upon conversion to Catholicism. |
| 1594 | King Henry IV was crowned King of France. |
| 1598 | New King Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes, ending the French Wars of Religion. |
Catherine de Medici Contributions
In 1547, King Henry II ascended the French throne. Catherine de' Medici began to influence the French monarchy and governance as Queen consort. She held this position for 12 years. Upon Henry II's accidental death in 1559, Catherine became Queen regent for her two underage sons, King Francis II and King Charles IX. After the death of Charles IX and the ascension of King Henry III in 1574, Catherine's of-age third son, she became the Queen mother. Still, she continued to influence the French court after years of control. Let's look at Catherine de' Medici's significant contributions to politics, the monarchy, and religion during her time at the helm of France.
Religious Tensions
After Francis II became the young King of France in 1559, the Guise family, who had been part of the French court since King Francis I, gained more power within French governance. As the Guises were staunch Catholics supported by both the papacy and Spain, they readily responded to the Protestant Reformation by persecuting Huguenots throughout France.
The Huguenots were a group of Protestants in France who followed the teachings of John Calvin. This group began around 1536 after Calvin released his document The Institutes of the Christian Religion. The Huguenots were continually persecuted in France, even after Catherine attempted to appease the conflict and tensions through the Edict of Saint Germain.
With the Guise family's rising power and aspirations for the French throne, Catherine de' Medici needed a solution to quell their power. Upon Francis II's death in 1560, Catherine appointed Anthony of Bourbon as Lieutenant-General of France under the new young King Charles IX.
The Bourbons were a Huguenot family with aspirations for the throne. They were involved in the Amboise Conspiracy to overthrow Francis II in 1560. By appointing Anthony, Catherine was able to oust the Guise family from the French court and temporarily quieten Anthony's aspirations for the throne.
Catherine also proposed attempts to ease the religious tensions in 1560, which were eventually passed in 1562 as the Edict of Saint Germain, granting Huguenots a level of religious freedom in France.
Fig. 3 Massacre of Vassy.
In March 1562, in rebellion against the Edict of Saint Germain, the Guise family led the Massacre of Vassy, killing many Huguenots and instigating the French Wars of Religion. Anthony of Bourbon died that year during the Siege of Rouen, and his son, Henry of Bourbon, became the King of Navarre. Henry of Bourbon continued his family's aspirations for the French throne in the years to come.
The French Wars of Religion
Catherine de' Medici was influential in the French Wars of Religion (1562-1598). Catherine was the main mastermind and signatory for the periods of peace during this 30-year war. Let's look at the significant royal decrees that Catherine signed in this period in her attempts to bring peace to a religiously torn France.
- 1562 Edict of Saint Germain allowed Huguenots to preach freely in France, a landmark decree to end protestant persecution.
- 1563 Edict of Amboise ended the First War of Religion by granting the Huguenots legal rights and a limited right to preach in fixed locations.
- 1568 Peace of Longjumeau was signed by Charles IX and Catherine de' Medici. The edict ended the second French War of Religion with terms that mostly confirmed those of the earlier edict of Amboise.
- 1570 Peace of Saint-Germain-en-Laye ended the Third War of Religion. It gave the Huguenots the same rights they had held at the beginning of the war, allocating them 'security towns'.
Catherine's work to foster peace was achieved, but only after her death. She died in 1589, and after her son, King Henry III, was assassinated later that year, the French throne was passed to Henry of Bourbon, King of Navarre. He was crowned King Henry IV in 1594 and, sharing Catherine's desire for religious peace, issued the Edict of Nantes in 1598, which protected Huguenot rights and promoted civil unity.
St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre
Despite Catherine de' Medici's attempts to create peace in France, the French Wars of Religion continued to rage between the Huguenots and Catholics. 24 August 1572 saw the start of a targeted group of assassinations and violent Catholic mobs aimed against the Huguenots during the civil war. These attacks began in Paris and spread throughout France. King Charles IX, under the regency of Catherine de' Medici, ordered the killing of a group of Huguenot leaders, including Coligny. Subsequently, a murderous pattern spread across Paris.
Ending in October 1572, the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre caused over 10,000 casualties within two months. The Huguenot political movement was damaged by losing its supporters and most prominent political leaders, marking a turning point in the French Wars of Religion.
Fig. 4 St.Bartholomew's Day Massacre.
Historian H.G. Koenigsburger states that the St Bartholomew's Day Massacre was:
The worst of the century's religious massacres.1
Catherine de' Medici receives a vast amount of scrutiny and blame for the many deaths at the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. Yet, it is impossible to know the actual origin of the assault. Catherine's position as regent during this time likely meant that she was aware of the upcoming conflicts and played a part in their productions. Still, it is often suggested that Catherine was among the few who did not agree to kill thousands of Huguenots. However, she condoned the assassination of Coligny and his lieutenants as a self-preserving political power move.
Why did Catherine want the assassination of Coligny?
Admiral Coligny was a known leading Huguenot and an influential counsellor to King Charles IX. After several unknown assassination attempts on Coligny and other Protestant leaders in Paris in 1572, Catherine de' Medici feared a Protestant uprising.
In response to this, as a Catholic Queen mother, and regent, Catherine approved the plan to execute Coligny and his men to protect the Catholic Crown and King. The violence spread throughout the crowd, and the common people followed suit, killing any Protestant and Protestant sympathizers available.
Catherine de' Medici's Line Discontinued
After the death of Charles IX in 1574, Catherine's favourite son Henry III became king, beginning another crisis of succession and religion. Catherine would not act as regent during Henry III's reign as he was old enough to rule on his own. However, Catherine still influenced his reign by overseeing the kingdom's affairs on behalf of Henry, acting as his political advisor.
Henry III's failure to produce an heir to the throne led the French Wars of Religion to develop into the War of the Three Henrys (1587). With Catherine's death in 1589 and her son Henry III's assassination only a few months later, Catherine's line was ended. Upon his death bed, Henry III recommended the ascension of his cousin, Henry IV of Navarre. In 1598, Henry IV ended the French Wars of Religion by passing the Edict of Nantes.
War of the Three Henrys
The eighth conflict in the series of civil wars in France. During 1587–1589, King Henry III, Henry I, Duke of Guise, and Henry of Bourbon, King of Navarre, fought for the French crown.
Edict of Nantes
This edict granted the Huguenots tolerance in France.
French Monarchy
Catherine is known for opposing the sexist constraints posed against women of power. After the death of her husband, Catherine defended her authority as Queen regent and Queen mother rigorously. Catherine Crawford comments on her political initiative, stating:
Catherine de Medici moved into a position of political prominence largely on her own initiative by presenting herself as a devoted wife, widow, and mother as the basis of her political entitlement.2
Fig. 5 Catherine de Medici and Marie Stuart.
Catherine de' Medici held power for most of her life through her roles as Queen consort, Queen regent, and Queen mother. She played an essential part while waiting for her children to come of age and assume power. Holding her position proved difficult, as extremists supported by Spain and the Papacy wanted to dominate the crown and diminish its independence in the interests of European Catholicism.
The Reformation weakened the Roman Catholic Church as Protestantism was gaining popularity throughout France. With Spain leading the fight against Protestantism through their strict and disciplined religious practices, they became particularly interested in obliterating Protestantism in neighbouring France.
Extremist
A person with extreme religious or political views, known for violent or illegal actions.
Papacy
The office or authority of the Pope.
Catherine de Medici Renaissance
Catherine embraced the Renaissance ideals of classicism, well-roundedness, scepticism, and individualism, becoming a true patron of the arts. She was known for appreciating culture, music, dance, and art and owned a vast art collection.
Fun Fact!
Catherine de Medici's main passion was architecture. She was directly involved with creating memorials for her late husband and grand building projects. She was often referred to as a parallel of Artemisia, an ancient Carian Greek queen who built the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus as a tribute to her late husband's death.
Fig. 7 Artemisia in battle
Catherine de Medici Significance
As we have explored, Catherine de' Medici played a significant role in many key events of the 16th century. Through her status as Queen mother, her influence on the shift in female positions in French politics, and her contributions to the French Monarchy's independence, she has become known for enduring influence over the French Monarchy.
Her many attempts at ending the conflicts during the French Wars of Religion, and her involvement in renaissance art collecting and architectural development, earned Catherine de' Medici a tremendous amount of recognition during this time, as she is said to have shaped and saved this era.
Catherine de' Medici - Key takeaways
- Catherine de' Medici ruled over the French Monarchy for 17 years, making her one of the most powerful women of the 16th Century.
- Catherine contributed hugely to the continuation of the independent French Monarchy, bearing three future Kings of France and acting as the regency for many years.
- Catherine ruled over a period filled with religious conflict and political turmoil, making her time in power significantly difficult due to her position as a Catholic during the Protestant Reformation.
- The St. Bartholomew's Day massacre is a historical disagreement, with Catherine's involvement and causation of the massacre often debated. Catherine is said to have signed off on the assassinations of Coligny and his main leaders as she feared a protestant uprising was imminent. The disagreement with Catherine's direct impact on the massacre is that it is suggested that she did not want the deaths to move on to the common people.
- The French Wars of Religion were not started by Catherine alone. The Guise family and their conflicts between the families brought about the Massacre of Vassy in 1562, creating a major influencing factor in the religious tensions that started the French Wars.
References
- H.G. Koenigsburger, 1999. Europe in the sixteenth century.
- Catherine Crawford, 2000. Catherine de Medicis and the Performance of Political Motherhood. Pp.643.
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