Herbert Hoover was an unpopular one-term President who had the misfortune of taking office shortly before the Great Depression hit the United States. Hoover's policies would be blamed by his adversaries for creating or worsening the U.S. economic crisis that began during his term. Hoover had only been in office for a few months before the crisis started but it grew steadily worse during his time. That's why Hoover's Administration accomplishments were dwarfed by the Great Depression and his legacy got to be defined by this crisis.
Fig.1 Herbert Hoover 1917
Early Career and Election
Herbert Hoover had a strong record of success and public service. As a geologist, he had made millions of dollars in mining. He worked as a private citizen during World War I to help with evacuations and provided food to war-torn Europe. Later, he served in three presidential administrations.
His work in other administrations ranged from organizing humanitarian aid to infrastructure work as radio networks and civilian air travel spread across the United States. Whatever later critcisms arose of Hoover's ability to run the country, his past experience was certainly impressive
Hoover was the Director of the United States Food Administration under Democrat Woodrow Wilson. Despite his later hands off economic policies as president, Hoover worked on government intervention in the WWI economy. With food production unstable in Europe due to the war, Hoover used government powers and propaganda to ensure stable food prices in the US and consistent supply to European allies.
He was the Secretary of Commerce under Republicans Calvin Coolidge and Warren G. Harding. Having just defected from the Democratic Party to the Republican Party, Harding at this point was still quite progressive in his views. He urged government action to grow the US infrastructure and a balance between commercial and worker insterests. Others viewed Hoover primarily as a middle ground between the extremes of business and socialist interests.
1928 Election
Hoover entered the 1928 presidential election as the candidate of the Republican Party. He faced off against Democrat Alfred E. Smith. Hoover won the election with the highest margin of electoral votes that had ever been counted. His success was due to the strong economy that had developed under the previous two Republican administrations, as well as intolerance of Smith's Catholicism at the time by Protestant voters.
Fig.2 - President Hoover
Herbert Hoover and the Great Depression
In September 1929, the stock market crashed and the U.S. economy entered the Great Depression. Many were left jobless, homeless, and hungry. It was the defining crisis of Hoover's administration. Despite being known for feeding Europeans during his time as a philanthropist, his unwillingness to have the government directly aid impoverished people led to Hoover's low popularity.
Black Tuesday:
It marks one of the darkest times for the economy during the Great Depression. On Tuesday, October 29th, 1929, the stock market plummeted to its lowest point, cutting the GDP by 15% worldwide for the next three years.
Public Works and Other Actions
Despite often being criticized for being too far removed from helping Americans during the Great Depression, Hoover did offer some attempts to tackle the problems. He supported the creation of public works projects to bolster employment, this would later be a big part of Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal. He also had direct meetings with business leaders in an attempt to convince them to keep their employees and maintain their wages during the economic turbulence. He also supported the Reconstruction Finance Corporation which loaned money to help banks during the crisis.
Conservative Principles
While Hoover had done a great amount of humanitarian work as a private citizen, he hid not believe that direct relief was the role of the Federal Government. Hoover strongly believed in the conservative principle of small government. His theory was that local governments and private charities should handle the needs of the poor.
Philanthropy and Public Relief during the Hoover Administration
Many local and state governments did attempt to help meet the needs of the citizens but they were quickly overwhelmed by the economic crisis. When they sought help from the Federal government, Hoover refused. Hoover promoted the idea that it was the responsibility of citizens to volunteer and give from their private resources to aid those in need. There was an increase in private philanthropy during Hoover's administration but it was not enough to meet the enormous need.
Welfare and a Balanced Budget
Hoover believed that large-scale welfare programs would be bad for the United States. He felt that if people were given money for not working, they would get too used to it and refuse to work. He also believed that the costs of such programs would be too great. His belief was that the government taking on a large debt would worsen the crisis, so he held firm to keep a balanced budget. This led to him being viewed by many of those suffering as cold or indifferent to their plight.
Opposition in Congress
Although the Republican Party controlled Congress during the Hoover administration, it was still split into two wings. The Progressive wing of the Republican party wanted to provide direct relief to American citizens during the extraordinary crisis. The Democratic Party also had these goals. Together, bills were making their way through Congress by 1932 to provide food, jobs, and other direct relief. Hoover famously vetoed a bill before passing a bill with less help for individuals but more help for banks and industries.
Fig.3 - Herbert Hoover with Cabinet
Hoover on Foreign Policy
Hoover sought a foreign policy based upon increased international cooperation. He pursued international disarmament, condemned aggression between nations, and tried to reduce United States interventions abroad. Ironically, one of the most famous bills he supported, the Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act, ended up severely undermining the increased cooperation Hoover worked for.
Stimson Doctrine
The Hoover administration disapproved of Japanese aggression against China. Japan was considered a possible ally and the administration believed that more moderate voices in the Japanese government should be supported. The administration tried to walk the tight rope of not angering Japan while expressing their disapproval through the Stimson Doctrine. The Doctrine stated that the United States would not recognize any territorial changes which were created by force.
Latin America and the Banana Wars
Hoover did make good on some of his campaign promises but reducing the role of the United States in Latin America was mixed. In some ways he de-escalated in the region, yet he still found new ways to become involved. Hoover had come into the Republican Party much less of an isolationist than other members, going back to his early support for the League of Nations.
The Banana Wars, as well as the occupations of Nicaragua and Haiti, were all reduced or ended during his term. However, he did threaten action in the Dominican Republic and sent naval vessels to support the government of El Salvador.
Public Opinion of Hoover
Hoover entered office riding the greatest presidential election victory that the country had ever seen. By the end of his term, he would lose in a decisive victory by Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Many members of his own party who had supported Hoover's 1928 presidential bid campaigned for Roosevelt in 1932. Several high-profile blunders combined with the general feeling that somehow Hoover had caused or worsened the Great Depression to reverse his initial popularity. He had come into office with the expectation that he would maintain the economic success of the Roaring 20s, which was not what happened.
Smoot-Hawley Tariff
One of Hoover's popular campaign promises was that he would support farmers by raising prices on agricultural imports. Hoover left the drafting of the legislation in the hands of Conservative Republicans Senator Reed Smoot and House Representative Willis C. Hawley. They drafted very strong tariffs on both agricultural and industrial goods. Despite a petition of 1,000 economists against the bill, Hoover felt compelled to sign the legislation out of loyalty to his party and the campaign promise. The legislation resulted in retaliatory tariffs around the world which cut U.S. foreign trade in half and created barriers to diplomacy.
Hoovervilles
In the wake of the Great Depression, many Americans were left homeless. From this arose large homeless camps around many major urban areas across the United States. The Publicity Director for the Democratic Party called them "Hoovervilles." Many people blamed Hoover and his unwillingness to provide direct economic support to Americans for the homelessness problem. The name Hoovervilles stuck and became the common term for the large homeless camps.
The Bonus Army
As the economic situation worsened, many World War I vets who were still owed future payments on bonus money from their military service traveled to Washington, DC to demand immediate payment. Many of these veterans were now homeless and destitute, they formed the Bonus Army out of necessity. The House passed a bill to pay the men early, but Hoover was against the idea and the Senate did not pass it. When Congress refused to pay, the Bonus Army camped in Washington, DC, and refused to leave. Hoover told the police to clear the camp, which they did with excessive force, outraging Americans.
Fig.4 The Bonus Army Clashes with Police
1932 Election
By the end of his term, Hoover was largely viewed as cold and uncaring for the plight of common people during the Great Depression. Many who had been affected desperately sought any form of relief. They were outraged that the Federal Government was not doing more to help them. Franklin Delano Roosevelt defeated Hoover by a large margin in 1932. The landslide that Hoover had ridden in on reversed directions and carried him out.
Later Revaluation of Hoover's Presidency
After losing reelection, Hoover became an author and lecturer, concentrating on criticizing the New Deal and large government. Later Presidents from both parties, Truman and Eisenhower, brought him back into the Government. They assigned him to lead committees dedicated to the oversight of government inefficiency and waste. Some historians would later point out that although Hoover received a great deal of contemporary blame for the Great Depression, it lasted for another eight years under Roosevelt's plan and didn't truly end until World War II.
Hoover Administration - Key takeaways
- Entered office in 1928 with the expectation that the economic success of previous Republican administrations would continue.
- The Great Depression occurred during the first year of the administration.
- Hoover's unwillingness for the Federal Government to provide direct relief during the Great Depression was extremely unpopular.
- Was defeated in 1932 by Franklin Delano Roosevelt, whose New Deal Policy promised stronger government intervention in the economic crisis.
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