Memory

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

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A father had just arrived home from work, changed into comfortable clothes, and made himself a nice cup of coffee to unwind after a long day when he realised something. He had forgotten to pick up his son from nursery!! Oh, dear. A case of memory failure, or more precisely, prospective memory failure. Why can we recall memories from days, weeks, and years ago but at other times, our memory fails us? What types of memory are there? How do we store information using memories?

First, we will define memory.
Then, we will look at some different types of memory.
After that, we will look at two models of memory; the multi-store memory model and the working memory model.
Finally, we will look at issues with memory that may lead to forgetting information.

What is the definition of memory?

In psychology, memory is defined as when we absorb information from the world, process and store that information, and then retrieve that information at a later date. Thus, there are three major components to memory - encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Encoding is when the information we take in from our senses is encoded so that the brain can store that information. Different types of memory use various forms of encoding. For example, short-term memory mainly uses auditory to encode information, such as when you repeat aloud a phone number until you remember it.

Storage - after the information is encoded, it is stored in the brain. There are different types of memory storage, such as short-term and long-term

Retrieval - information that is stored in the brain is retrieved at a later date.

Types of Memory

Here we will describe three basic types of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).

Sensory Memory

The senses detect information from the world around us and first enter the sensory memory, which stores a brief impression of the detected stimuli. The sensory stores constantly receive information, but most of this information is not attended to and remains in memory very briefly. It is then replaced with new information. If you pay attention to one of this received information, it enters the STM. The duration of the sensory memory is concise, ¼ to ½ of a second. Sensory memory has different sensory stores for each of the senses to encode the incoming information, so a taste is stored as a taste, a touch is stored as a touch etc.

Short-Term Memory

Short-term memory is the storage of memory available for a short time only (around 30 seconds). Short-term memory can store seven items +/- 2 (so someone's STM might be able to store nine items while another person can store five items). The information to be remembered needs to be continually rehearsed, mainly through mentally repeating or repeating out loud, so that it is not lost from the STM. However, existing information in the STM can be forgotten due to new information coming in. This is known as displacement.

A typical example of short-term memory is when you need to remember a set of numbers, like a phone number, and repeat it to yourself until you remember it.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

The duration and capacity (how much the LTM can store) are unlimited. There are three types of LTM -- episodic, semantic and procedural memory.

Episodic memory is the memory of events in your life. For example, what you did for your sweet 16th, everything you did on holiday in Italy. Episodic memory contains information on what, when and where an event happened.

Semantic memory is the collection of knowledge you have gained throughout your life. For example, the capital of France is Paris.

Procedural memory: procedural memory is your memory of how to do things, such as ride a bike or play the piano.

Prospective memory, mentioned in the introduction, is a type of memory that lets us remember and carry out tasks that we have planned for the future. An example of prospective memory is, 'when I get home I need to make dinner, revise for my exam next week, and walk my dog.'

Memory, a photo of the Eiffel Tower, StudySmarter Fig 1. - Eiffel Tower, knowing that Paris is the capital of France, is an example of semantic memory

Memory Models in Psychology

There are two major models of memory you need to know. They are the multi-store model of memory and the working memory model. A summary of the models will be provided here.

Multi-store Model of Memory

Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed one of the earliest models of memory, the multi-store model of memory (MSM), in 1968. The MSM suggests that there are three separate memory stores. Information is transferred between these three stores in a linear process. The three stores are sensory memory, short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM). These memory stores differ in how information is encoded, memory storage capacity and how long information is stored (duration).

The senses detect information and first enter the sensory memory. If the information is focused on, it then enters the STM. After that, if the information is given meaning, it then enters the LTM. Information is passed into LTM if given meaning (elaborative rehearsal).

Elaborative rehearsal connects new information in a meaningful way with information already stored in LTM. Elaborative rehearsal is more effective in remembering new information than maintenance rehearsal. Information can be recollected from LTM to STM when needed.

Memory, multi-store model of memory chart, StudySmarter Fig 2. - Multi-store model of memory.

The Working Memory Model

Baddeley and Hitch's (1974) Working Memory Model sought to explain how short-term memory works. The multi-store model of memory suggested that short-term memory was just one single store; however, Baddeley and Hitch thought that short-term memory is more sophisticated, it contains multiple stores and is an actively working memory. The main components in this model are the 'central executive', 'visuospatial sketchpad', 'phonological loop' and 'episodic buffer'.

The central executive is the control centre that all the other components connect to and acts like a control centre. A visuospatial sketchpad is our ability temporarily to hold visual and spatial information. An example of our visuospatial sketchpad is remembering the location of where you left your school books.

A Phonological loop processes speech or verbal information. The phonological loop has two parts, a phonological store that holds verbal information and an articulatory loop which uses inner speech (mental rehearsal) to remember and retain the information in the phonological store.

The episodic buffer blends together information from the three other components (central executive, visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop) and long-term memory.

Memory, working memory model chart, StudySmarter Fig 3. Working memory model

Memory Issues

This section below will introduce two explanations for forgetting in psychology: interference and retrieval failure. Both explanations will be further discussed and will be critically evaluated with research evidence in other articles.

Interference

The interference theory of forgetting explains the reason for forgetting in long-term memory. According to interference theory, forgetting happens when memories interfere with and disturb one another. In other words, forgetting occurs when two pieces of information conflict.

Retrieval failure

The retrieval failure theory of forgetting, also known as cue-dependent forgetting, explains the failure to recall information without memory cues. When information is first stored in memory, accompanying signals are also stored. If these cues are not there at the time of recall, you may be unable to recall information in your memory.

Tips on how to improve your memory:

Focus on the task at hand: when we focus and pay attention to something, it gets transferred from the STM to the LTM. When studying, try to study in a quiet place without any distractions.
Do not cram information: taking in information regularly over a period of time is better than trying to cram information into the brain in a short space of time.
Chunking: categorize what you need to learn into different compartments - organize information by grouping related concepts or topics together.
Make use of learning techniques - try to find ways that will help you to remember, such as coming up with acronyms to help you to remember important points. For example, OCEAN is an acronym for the big 5 personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism).
Relate the information to you: ask yourself how can you connect what you are learning to yourself. When we give information meaning this is called elaborative rehearsal which is how information from the STM gets transferred to the LTM.
Test yourself: when you test yourself on what you have learned you will learn more effectively than just memorizing something over and over (use our handy flashcards to test yourself!)
Make associations between new and old information: when you are trying to learn something new, try to think of how it relates to what you already know.
Visual cues: create graphs and charts to help you to remember information, such as the memory model charts in this explanation!
Write not type: when we write down information by hand we remember it much better than when we type it. This is because as writing by hand takes longer, we naturally be more selective as to what we write down, focusing only on the main points to be learned.
Say information aloud: when we read out information to ourselves the actions of speaking and hearing ourselves help the information to be transferred to the LTM.

Memory - Key takeaways

In psychology, memory is defined as when we absorb information from the world, process and store that information, and then retrieve that information at a later date.
The three basic types of memory are sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
There are several types of long-term memory, these are episodic memory, semantic memory and procedural memory.
The two major models of memory are the multi-store model of memory (MSM) and the working memory model (WMM). The MSM suggests that there are 3 separate memory stores. Information is transferred between these 3 stores in a linear process. The WMM suggests that short-term memory is more than one single store and is an active processing memory with many components.
The two explanations for forgetting are interference and retrieval failure. According to interference theory, forgetting happens when memories interfere with and disturb one another. Retrieval failure occurs when there are no cues in the present environment to aid recall of information.

References

Fig 1. - Eiffel Tower (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Eiffel_tower_paris_france.jpg) by TheDigitalArtist, licensed by Public Domain
Fig 2. - Multi-store model of memory (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Multi-Store-Model.jpg) by Vedant9696, licensed by CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)
Fig 3. - Working memory model (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Baddeley_and_Hitch%27s_Working_Memory_Model.png) by Cheese 360, licensed by CC BY-SA 3.0

Frequently Asked Questions about Memory

In psychology, memory is defined as when we absorb information from the world, process and store that information, and then retrieve that information at a later date.

The three basic types of memory are sensory memory, short-term memory and long-term memory.

There are three components to memory; encoding, storage and retrieval. Encoding is when the information that we take in from our senses is encoded in such a way that the brain can store that information. Storage is simply when the information is stored away after it has been encoded. Retrieval is when information that is stored in the brain is retrieved at a later date.

You can improve memory by writing what you need to remember (not typing), creating graphs and charts, or relating information to you personally.

Final Memory Quiz

Memory Quiz - Teste dein Wissen

Question

What is memory?

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Answer

Memory refers to the structures and processes involved in storing and retrieving information.

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What are the three basic types of memory?

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Sensory memory.

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What is sensory memory?

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Sensory memory includes information from all your senses. When attention is paid to something in the environment, it is converted to short-term memory.

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What is short term memory?

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STM refers to memory that keeps a small amount of information. Information stored in STM will usually only be able to stay in your mind for a very brief time.

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What is long term memory?

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Long term memory refers to the storage of memory that is supposed to keep information for an extended time. LTM is supposed to be stable and can last a long time, often for years.

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What are the 3 different elements of memory?

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The 3 elements of memory are coding, capacity, and duration.

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What are the two major models of memory?

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The two major models of memory are the multi-store model of memory and the working memory model.

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What are the two explanations for forgetting?

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The two explanations for forgetting are interference and retrieval failure.

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What is retrieval failure?

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Retrieval Failure explains the failure to recall information without memory cues. When information is first stored in memory, accompanying cues are also stored. If these cues are not there at the time of recall, you may be unable to recall information in your memory.

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What is interference?

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Answer

According to the interference theory, forgetting happens when memories interfere with and disturb one another; in other words, forgetting occurs when two pieces of information conflict.

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What is required for the information to be converted from sensory memory to short-term memory?

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Attention

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The memory of how to ride a bike is an example of ______

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long-term memory

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What does the process of coding refer to?

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Coding is a measure of how the information is received, transferred and stored in our memory.

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What does the term capacity refer to?

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Capacity refers to the measurement of how much information can be stored in memory. In other words, the amount of information you can hold in your mind.

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How many items can we store in our short-term memory on average according to Miller (1956)?

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Miller (1956), argues that humans can store around seven items in our short-term memory on average.

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What does the term duration refer to?

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Duration is a measure of how long the information is available for retrieval. In other words, it refers to the amount of time you can hold a piece of information in your mind.

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How can we lengthen the duration of memory?

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through rehearsal

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Who proposed the multi-store memory model?

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Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin proposed the multi-store model of memory (MSM).

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What components of memory, does the multi-store memory model identify?

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The MSM describes the flow between three components, namely sensory register (SR), short-term memory (STM), and long-term memory (LTM).

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The components of memory in the multi-store memory model have the same characteristics.

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Answer

false

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What did Baddeley and Hitch's (1974) add to the multi-store memory model?

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Baddeley and Hitch proposed that short-term memory (STM) must be more sophisticated than a single unitary store that exists to transfer information to long-term memory (LTM).

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Which of these types of memory have a potentially unlimited duration?

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Semantic memory.

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What techniques would effectively transfer new information to long-term memory?

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Linking new information to previous knowledge in a meaningful way.

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Memory

Memory

Memory

What is the definition of memory?

Types of Memory

Sensory Memory

Short-Term Memory

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Memory Models in Psychology

Multi-store Model of Memory

The Working Memory Model

Memory Issues

Interference

Retrieval failure

Tips on how to improve your memory:

Memory - Key takeaways

References

Frequently Asked Questions about Memory

What is memory?

What are the three types of memory?

How does memory work according to psychology?

How can you improve memory?

Final Memory Quiz

Memory Quiz - Teste dein Wissen

More explanations about Basic Psychology

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